Summary

Modern Indian History Class 25

The emergence of the Indian National Movement (INM) until the formation of INC? (5:02 PM):

Mention various revolts before INC.
Some organizations before INC.
Evolution of INM:
Indian National Movement was a product of the negativities of British rule.
Gradual progress from regional to national organizations and from moderates to extremists to the revolutionary phase.
Nationalism at the organized level at the top, as against peasant struggle on the ground emerged in the second half of the 19th century.
The first contribution to modern politics and modern nationalism came from educated zamindars.
British Indian Association 1851 (BRIA 1851) - in Bengal:
The first major voluntary organization in India comprised educated zamindars.
Though it represented zamindar interests, it was an all-Indian organization.
It was different from Dwarkanath Tagor's Landholder Society 1838, which had many non-official Anglo-Indians/British.
Bombay Association1852 and Madras Native Association 1852 had similar features.
The objectives of these organizations were to send petitions to the British Parliament, which was drafting the Charter Act of 1853.
They worked to raise legitimate demands of Indians and not just of landlords, thus forming a fraternity of nationalism.
The issue with these organizations was that they would send three separate petitions to London and not just a single petition. Thus, there was a lack of coordination among these organizations.
The demand of these organizations:
Complained about expenses and incompetent administration, high taxation, neglect of education and public works, and monopoly in salt and opium production/trade (i.e. opening these sectors to Indians).
Therefore they didn't oppose British rule (Angrezo Bharat Choro) but highlighted that Indians are not benefited from British rule.
These conservatives were the first contributor to modern nationalism.
They failed to achieve their objectives because the British assumed unconditional loyalty of the landed and educated class as they were major beneficiaries of British rule.
However, post-1857 revolt, leadership was provided by the landed class and Indian princes. Instead of their support, the British nominated them into councils set up under the Indian Councils Act 1861 (ICA -1861)

General factors behind the rise of INM: (05:45 PM)

The rapid spread of western education post-1857:
Inspired by the ideas of modern nationalism, the educated middle class took leadership of the Indian national movement
British wanted to create Brown Sahebs, however, this middle-class intelligentsia used education to develop a criticism of British rule. It gained momentum, especially when the educated middle class realized that the British had no intention of sharing power with Indians.
However uneven growth of western education led to the uneven growth of INM.
For example, since education was not free and the British adopted the downward filtration theory, the upper caste benefited more than the lower caste.
Bombay, Madras, and Bengal benefitted more than other regions.
Within Presidencies, the Presidency town benefitted more than other areas.
The middle class benefited more than the peasantry.
Benefits were cornered by communities like Marathi, Tamilians, Bengalis, and Hindus as compared to other communities like Gujarati, Telugu, Malayali, Odiya, Assamese, and Muslims.
The result was the growth of political activities in more educated areas and groups.
The rapid development of the press:
The educated middle class used the press as a tool to raise the demand for Indians and spread nationalistic ideas.
For example- by 1875 there were roughly 400 Indian newspapers in English and vernacular with a readership of more than 1.5 lakhs.
As a result, the press increased political consciousness, boosted inter-regional awareness and fraternity
Colonial institutions:
Legislative councils helped the growth of INM as educated Indians campaigned for Council reforms. Post-1892 moderates used Councils for demanding the rights of Indians.
Growth of railways and telegraph networks:
It led to greater interconnectedness.
This allowed greater interaction with regional leaders.
Greater inter-regional awareness among leaders of INM led to the development of pan-India leaders.

Negatives of British rule contributed to the rise of INM: (6:05 PM)

Racial tensions led to opposition to British rule:
Lex-Loci Act was passed despite huge opposition by Hindus.
Black Acts 1850 brought British-born subjects of the Presidency town, under the criminal jurisdiction of the Ordinary Court, with Indians as judges (1833 - Judiciary opened to Indians). The act was put on hold due to high opposition by Anglo-Indians. Therefore, conflict increased the psychological distance between the two races.
Rise of cultural nationalism in response to increased racism and criticism of Indian civilization post-1857.
Taxation without representation (TWR):
No tax without representation is the core principle of democracy.
Income Tax (1860, 1868) - In the 1860s and 70s India witnessed famine in its different parts, despite this Income Tax was introduced in 1860. This led to massive protests in the press, as a result, it was withdrawn, but reintroduced in 1868. Therefore, taxation without representation became a grievance of educated Indians.
Higher expenditure on home charges and the army combined with the increase in taxes, while expenditure in higher education decreased in the 1870s.
Due to increased agitation by educated Indians, the press supported by the Anglo-Indians began propaganda that educated Indians are becoming seditious. Therefore, in 1870 government decreased expenditure on higher education in Bengal.
Administration of Lyton (1876-80):
Decreased the age limit for civil services examination was from 21 to 19 years in 1876, while demand for simultaneous exams in India was neglected. Therefore he distrusted Indians and did not want their representation in senior positions.
Statutory Civil Services Act, 1878: Lyton created statutory civil service to operationalize provisions of an 1870 law by the British Parliament that wanted more Indians in civil services.
Lytton however insured that only loyalists were nominated to statutory civil services, in which entry was through a nomination and not examination. Thus, from 1877-80, a huge press campaign was started for the Indianisation of civil services by western educated Indians.
Imperial or Delhi Durbar (1877): Here Queen Victoria got coronated with the title of Kaisar-i-Hind or Empress of India. Therefore, huge expenditures were incurred while the subcontinent witnessed frequent famines. (Can be used in no taxation without representation as expenditure of taxes without the consent of people)
Vernacular Press Act, 1878: To curb freedom of the press as the vernacular press was becoming increasingly critical of the British.
Printers and publishers of the vernacular press have to deposit money as an advance that could be forfeited by the government if they published any objectionable content (i.e. anti-British). This led to huge agitation in the press by educated Indians. Even British parliamentarian Gladstone (a liberal) criticized the act.
Arms Act, 1878: Indians required a license to own arms, while Europeans and Eurasians did not therefore, racism was in operation. B.C. Pal started agitation against the Arms Act of 1878.
The expensive second Afghan War (1878-80), also known as Lyton's Afghan adventure as it was avoidable. It was fought due to fear of increasing Russian influence in Afghanistan, and the resultant treaty with Russia after the war led to the modern borders of Afghanistan.
It was unnecessary war expenditure at a time of famines.
In 1880, Liberal Party came to power in Britain. Therefore Lyton was replaced with a liberal Ripon (1880-1884)

A positive regime of Ripon (1880-1884): (7:18 PM)

Repealed Vernacular Press Act, 1878 in 1882.
Amended Arms Act 1878 to remove racially discriminatory provisions. Therefore, now all required licenses to own arms.
Increased age limit for civil service examinations from 19 to 21 years.
Local Self-Government Resolution (LSGR) 1882:
There existed municipalities in urban towns and committees for different works like sanitation, road construction, education, etc. in rural areas. However, they were under official control.
Rippon strengthened urban and rural local bodies via LSGR, 1882. By 1884, the effect was visible in the whole of British India.
Its purpose was to train Indians in self-government and not efficiency in administration.
Now, in rural areas, District Boards and Taluk Boards were set up across the whole of British India, and their members were elected by rent payers and taxpayers instead of a nomination.
In urban towns, the powers of municipalities increased.
A minimum of two-thirds were elected members and a maximum of one-third were nominated members and the chairman was a non-official member.
Subjects of health, education, roads, communication, etc. were given to local bodies, which were now to be autonomous in day-to-day functioning.
However, the government could inspect and dissolve a local body.
Hunter Education Commission (1882-1883):
It recommended the transfer of the education subject to municipalities and District Boards.
Now focus to be on mass western education in vernacular, with a focus on female education.
Divide secondary education into literary and vocational (skill development) branches.
Illbert Bill Controversy (1883-84):
It was named after C.P. Illbert, who was a law member of Ripon's council.
The bill gave jurisdiction to Indian judges over British-born subjects in mofussil (rural) areas, as they already had in presidency towns.
Strongly opposed by the Anglo-Indians and British officials. e.g. Lt. Governor of Bengal stated that the bill ignores racial differences.
The bill had to be amended and compromises were made, to allow trial by mixed jury where British-born subjects were involved.
The controversy was a turning point for educated Indians, as any doubt of the subordination of Indians to the British was removed.
It was an important benchmark in the growth of political activities, due to massive press propaganda.
The proposal for simultaneous civil services examination in India failed. Therefore, all positive reforms of Ripon were strongly opposed by the Britishers in India.

Regional Organisations of the middle class: (7:57 PM)

They were set up for representing the interests of Indians
Indian Association 1876 by Surendranath Banerjee in Bengal
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, 1870 -MG Ranade, KT Telang, Ferozshah Mehta
Madras Mahajan Sabha 1884 - S Ramaswami Mudaliar and P Anandacharlu
Lahore Indian Association 1878 in Punjab by Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai
They gradually replaced the domination of conservatives i.e. organizations of the landed class.
Therefore, in the 1870s there was the rise of moderates and the middle class properly took up leadership of INM at an organized level.

The topic of the next class: Foundation of Indian National Congress